War in Iraq :: Politics Political History Government Essays

War in Iraq Introduction In 1979, President Bakr resigned under pressure from Hussein, who then became president. Immediately after his succession, Hussein called a Baath Party meeting and had all of his opposition systematically murdered. As president, Hussein continued to reinforce his power base by enlarging security forces and employing family members in the government. One 1984 analysis indicated that 50 percent of Iraqis were either employed by the government or military or had a family member who was -- thus making the population intimately connected to and dominated by Hussein. For the past two decades, Hussein has tyrannically ruled Iraq. He started a war with Iran, and his invasion of Kuwait led to the Persian Gulf War. While his abuses are widespread, opposition groups receive little popular support, and uprisings have been minor and easily squelched. Fear of reprisals forced nearly unanimous positive votes for Hussein in the 1995 and 2002 referendums on the presidency. In addition, many in the Middle East seem to believe that if Hussein is deposed the country will break into pieces, leading to more problems in the already troubled region. Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) Gulf War I The Iran-Iraq War permanently altered the course of Iraqi history. It strained Iraqi political and social life, and led to severe economic dislocations. Viewed from a historical perspective, the outbreak of hostilities in 1980 was, in part, just another phase of the ancient Persian-Arab conflict that had been fueled by twentieth-century border disputes. Many observers, however, believe that Saddam Hussein's decision to invade Iran was a personal miscalculation based on ambition and a sense of vulnerability. Saddam Hussein, despite having made significant strides in forging an Iraqi nation-state, feared that Iran's new revolutionary leadership would threaten Iraq's delicate SunniShia balance and would exploit Iraq's geostrategic vulnerabilities--Iraq's minimal access to the Persian Gulf, for example. In this respect, Saddam Hussein's decision to invade Iran has historical precedent; the ancient rulers of Mesopotamia, fearing internal strife and foreign conquest, also engaged in freque nt battles with the peoples of the highlands. Iraq and Iran had engaged in border clashes for many years and had revived the dormant Shatt al Arab waterway dispute in 1979. Iraq claimed the 200-kilometer channel up to the Iranian shore as its territory, while Iran insisted that the thalweg--a line running down the middle of the waterway--negotiated last in 1975, was the official border. The Iraqis, especially the Baath leadership, regarded the 1975 treaty as merely a truce, not a definitive settlement.

Precepts of the Ibm Essay

Theory Getting the Best From all Team Members (Also known as LMX or Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory) Meaning of LMX This situation is at the heart of the Leader-Member Exchange Theory. This theory, also known as LMX or the Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory, explores how leaders and managers develop relationships with team members; and it explains how those relationships can either contribute to growth or hold people back. Intro to LMX Understanding the Theory The Leader-Member Exchange Theory first emerged in the 1970s. It focuses on the relationship that develops between managers and members of their teams. The theory states that all relationships between managers and subordinates go through three stages. These are: Role-Taking. Role-Making. â€Å"Routinization. † Let’s look at each stage in greater detail. 1. Role-Taking Role-taking occurs when team members first join the group. Managers use this time to assess new members’ skills and abilities. 2. Role-Making New team members then begin to work on projects and tasks as part of the team. In this stage, managers generally expect that new team members will work hard, be loyal and prove trustworthy as they get used to their new role. The theory says that, during this stage, managers sort new team members (often subconsciously) into one of two groups. In-Group – if team members prove themselves loyal, trustworthy and skilled, they’re put into the In-Group. This group is made up of the team members that the manager trusts the most. Managers give this group most of their attention, providing challenging and interesting work, and offering opportunities for additional training and advancement. This group also gets more one-to-one time with the manager. Often, people in this group have a similar personality and work-ethic to their manager. Out-Group – if team members betray the trust of the manager, or prove that they’re unmotivated or incompetent, they’re put into the Out-Group. This group’s work is often restricted and unchallenging. Out-Group members tend to have less access to the manager, and often don’t receive opportunities for growth or advancement. . Routinization During this last phase, routines between team members and their managers are established. In-Group team members work hard to maintain the good opinion of their managers, by showing trust, respect, empathy, patience, and persistence. ##can be used for outcome that effect the organization Out-Group members may sta rt to dislike or distrust their managers. Because it’s so hard to move out of the Out-Group once the perception has been established, Out-Group members may have to change departments or organizations in order to â€Å"start over. Once team members have been classified, even subconsciously, as In-Group or Out-Group, that classification affects how their managers relate to them from then on, and it can become self-fulfilling. For instance, In-Group team members are often seen as rising stars and the manager trusts them to work and perform at a high level. This is also the group that the manager talks to most, offering support and advice, and they’re given the best opportunities to test their skills and grow. So, of course, they’re more likely to develop in their roles. This also holds true for the Out-Group. The manager spends little, if any, time trying to support and develop this group. They receive few challenging assignments or opportunities for training and advancement. And, because they’re never tested, they have little chance to change the manager’s opinion. Using the Theory You can use the Leader-Member Exchange Theory to be aware of how you perceive members of your own team. To do this, follow these steps: 1. Identify Your Out-Group Chances are, you know who’s in your Out-Group already. Take a moment to note their names down. Next, analyze why these people have fallen â€Å"out of favor. † Did they do something specifically to lose your trust? Do they exhibit bad behavior at work? Are they truly incompetent, or do they have low motivation? Analyze what they’ve actually done, and compare the facts with your perceptions. Do these match, or have you (perhaps subconsciously) blown things out of proportion? 2. Reestablish the Relationship It’s important that, as the leader, you make a reasonable effort to reestablish a relationship with Out-Group team members. Research published in the Leadership Quarterly journal in 1995 showed that team members who have high quality relationships with their leader have higher morale, and are more productive than those who don’t. So you, and your organization, can benefit from creating a better relationship. Keep in mind that this group will likely be wary of any attention or support from you; after all, they may not have had it in the past. First, meet each team member one-on-one. Take the time to find out if they’re happy with their job. What are their career goals? What can you do to make their work more challenging or engaging? A one-on-one meeting can also help you identify that person’s psychological contract with you – that is, the unspoken benefits they expect from you, as their leader. If they’re in the Out-Group, they may feel that the psychological contract has been broken. You also need to discover what truly motivates them. Use McClelland’s Human Motivation Theory or Herzberg’s Motivators and Hygiene Factor Theory to find out what drives them to succeed. Once you’ve had a chance to reconnect with your team members through one-on-one meetings, do what you sensibly can to continue to touch base with them. Practice management by walking around, or drop by their office to see if they need help on projects or tasks. Work on getting to know these team members on a personal level. 3. Provide Training and Development Opportunities Remember, the biggest advantage to the Leader-Member Exchange Theory is that it alerts you to the preference you might unconsciously – and possibly unfairly – be showing some team members; this allows you to offer all of your team members appropriate opportunities for training, development, and advancement. Your Out-Group team members may benefit from a mentoring or coaching relationship with you. You may also want to provide them with low risk opportunities to test and grow their skills. Use task allocation strategies to make sure you’re assigning the right task to the right person. Also, take our Bite-Sized Training session, Setting Goals for Your Team, to learn how to set effective and realistic goals for these team members. You can also use the Nine-Box Grid for Talent Management to re-assess their potential from time to time, and to give them the right development opportunities. LMX Theory ;amp; Organizational Effectiveness: ##from http://www. technofunc. com/index. php/leadership-skills/leadership-theories/item/leader-member-exchange-theory-lmx-theory LMX theory is directly related to organizational effectiveness as the quality of leader–member exchanges relate to positive outcomes for leaders, followers, groups, and the organization in general. More In-Group members means high-quality leader–member exchanges and that results in less employee turnover, more positive performance evaluations, higher frequency of promotions and greater organizational commitment. – Learn more at www. technofunc. com. Your online source for free professional tutorials. Info from†¦pdf The relationship Between Leader-member Exchange(LMX) motivated to support rather than resist the influence attempt. Conversely, employees in low LMX relationships are accustomed to antagonistic behaviors and may view consultation tactics as insincere and motivated by opportunistic intentions. For example, leaders with poor reputations who engage in supportive behaviors are viewed as self- serving and insincere. Similarly, for employees in low LMX relationships, a manager’s use of consultation tactics may be perceived as self-serving attempts to gain employee favor, or even to highjack employee ideas, rather than as an attempt to improve the change initiative. Such perceptions would likely cause these influence attempts to backfire and prompt employees to resist the influence attempt. It is likely that the contribution aspect of the leader–member relationship (which reflects the amount of effort expended toward mutual goals) will be a stronger predictor of citizenship behavior than will loyalty and professional respect, in part because citizenship behavior reflects effort expended beyond one’s normal role requirements (Illes, Nahrgana, and Morgeson, 2007). iffers from other leadership theories by its focus on the dyadic relationship and the unique relationships leaders develop with each follower (Gerstner ;amp; Day, 1997; Liden, Sparrowe, ;amp; Wayne, 1997). Strong LMX relationships are characterized by support, mutual trust, respect, and liking (Graen ;amp; Uhl-Bien, 1995). Interactions between employees and managers in strong LMX relationships typically reinforce positive affect and strengthen the relationship bond (Fairhur st, 1993). Such relationships include the exchange of material and nonmaterial goods that extend beyond what is specified in the formal job description (Liden et al. , 1997; Liden ;amp; Graen, 1980). This relationship has important implications for Biomedical Informatics technicians and vendors because at high levels of relationships, there is less resistance to change and use of sanctions also seems inconsistent with past behavior (Frust ;amp; Cable, 2008). The LMX model suggests that leaders do not use the same style or set of behaviors uniformly across all members. Instead, unique relationships or exchanges develop with each member. These exchanges range from low to high quality. In addition, the theory contends that a supervisor will develop different quality exchange relationships with each of his or her subordinates which remain relatively stable over time. Employees with high-quality exchanges have been referred to as in the â€Å"in-group† and those with low-quality exchanges as in the â€Å"out-group. In strong LMX relationships, employees are more likely to be involved and provide information needed for task accomplishment. These employees should be LMX and CMX Theory 6 An alternative approach to understanding a leaders’ influence on individual follower or subordinate effectiveness is through the focus on dyadic relationships between leaders and each of their subordinates (Dansereau et al. , 1975). Originally ter med vertical dyad linkage (Dansereau et al. , 1975), leader–member exchange theory LMX and CMX Theory 5

Definition of Middle Income Trap Essay

As the name implies, the middle income trap is an economic development situation, where a country which attains a certain income (due to given advantages) will get stuck at that level. Part of this concept was firstly discussed in the 2006 World Bank report ‘Equity and development’ as the ‘inequity trap’. But this report does not state very clearly on the definitions, classifications and measures to avoid it, etc. Then in the famous 2007 World Bank report ‘An east Asian Renaissance’, this economic phenomenon was officially addressed. According to the latest definition of The International Monetary Fund in 2013, the ‘middle-income trap’ is the phenomenon of hitherto rapidly growing economies stagnating at middle-income levels and failing to graduate into the ranks of high-income countries (2013 The International Monetary Fund Working Paper: Growth Slowdowns and the Middle Income Trap). From the publications and journal articles, it seems there has not been universal and very concrete understanding on the details of this issue yet. For example, different researchers and even different journalist may have different classifications on it based on various standards. However, the principles applied are similar. The most recent World Bank classification with data for 2010 is as following: a country is classified as low-income if its GNI (Gross National Income) per capita is US$1,005 or less, lower-middle-income if its GNI per capita lies between US$1,006 and US$3,975, upper-middle-income if its GNI per capita lies between US$3,976 and US$12,275, and high income if its GNI per capita is US$12,276 or above. This classification was also used by The International Monetary Fund in its working paper in 2013: Growth Slowdowns and the Middle Income Trap. After the International Monetary Fund applies this classification to its sample of 138 countries in 2010, the result yields 24 low-income countries, 36 lower middleincome countries, 33 upper middle-income countries, and 45 high-income countries (2013 The International Monetary Fund Working Paper: Growth Slowdowns and the Middle Income Trap). It’s very clear that most of the countries are still in the situation of low income or middle income. In addition, middle income  countries are much more than low income countries, which ensure us that it is make sense to pay more attention to the countries in the middle income situation. In recent years the world turned to recognize the existence of a Middle Income Trap. The term Middle Income Trap is by now also being widely used in economic literature as well as businessoriented media. The Middle Income Trap occurs when the growth of an economy slows and eventually flattens after it reaches a middle income level. The problem usually arises when developing countries ï ¬ nd themselves stuck in between high and low income levels. On the one hand, with rising wages, middle income countries are less competitive compared to lessdeveloped, low-wage countries in terms of the cheap production of manufactured goods. On the other hand, they are unable to compete with developed cou ntries in terms of high-skill innovations. As the Asian Development Bank describes, these countries cannot â€Å"compete with low-income, low-wage economies in manufacturing† and similarly are disadvantaged against advanced economies in high-skill innovations†. In another word, these countries cannot continue to compete on cost for cheap goods, and they cannot yet compete on quality for more sophisticated items. Let us have a deeper look at this economic phenomenon. When low-income countries first begin to take off, they often do take the advantage of a low-wage. This allows the country’s manufacturers to offer competitive prices on the global market, since they have a lower cost base. However, as economic growth rates and productivity rise quickly, rapid wage increases tend to follow. Thus the trap is generally characterized by the fact that rising wages eventually begin to eat into the competitiveness that low-base wages originally offered. Once economies get closer to the development frontier, the growth model will become more complex. It is increasingly determined by innovation, investment in more sophisticated technologies and through the raising of the level and quality of education, notably secondary and higher education of the potential labor force. Among these factors, it must be noted that education dose matter. In addition, the second education is more important than the ge neral education. Lower level of education in the majority of the labor force definitely leads to insufficient qualified  workers. The risks of falling into the Middle Income Trap have increasingly become a focus of discussions in terms of the long-term economic and social development of developing economies. These risks, and how to minimize them, are being discussed at the highest levels of policy making in some of the fast growing emerging economies, even while these countries may still be sources of envy to the rest of the world, such as China, Russia and India. Countries in the trap and how to avoid the middle income trap As we mentioned above, due to a variety of factors, many countries risk getting stuck in this trap. According to the International Monetary Fund, most notably, several Latin American economies, at least until recently, would seem to belong in this category, having failed to achieve highincome levels despite attaining middle-income status several decades ago (2013 The International Monetary Fund Working Paper: Growth Slowdowns and the Middle-Income Trap). Actually it has been well accepted that countries across Latin America as well as the several Middle East economies saw catch-up growth in the 1960s and 1970s but then they hit an invisible ceiling and have mostly stuck in the â€Å"middle income trap† ever since, with per capita incomes far behind the rare â€Å"break-out† countries. Most of the evidence on the middle-income trap comes from these economies of Latin America and the Middle East. These are regions abundant in land and natural resources. They have had growth during commodity booms, often followed by growth crashes when commodity prices drop sharply. In Eva Paus’s article about the Latin America’s middle-income trap, she points out that the accumulation of technological capabilities is at the heart of the development process. Technological capabilities refer to the resources and organizational abilities needed to generate and manage technological change. In a changing national and global context, accumulation those capabilities is the key to sustained productivity growth and high-end economic development. She also mentioned Policymakers should promote entrepreneurship and innovation to begin reaping the benefits of information networks and skilled labor before the gains from cheap labor and knowledge  spillovers are exhausted. Nowadays people are more studying on Asian countries with more both low income and middle income countries. Through the evidence from countries already stuck in middle income trap and the current research in Asia, people could not only forecast the future in terms of economic development, but also make the policy maker to develop the suitable measures to avoid the trap. We could take a look at the middle-income Asian economies for our further investigation. There are eight countries that stand out in East and South Asia: the ASEAN-5 (Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam), China, India and Sri Lanka. But they are at very different levels of development. They could be divided into ‘high middle-income’ and ‘low middleincome’ groups. Malaysia is at the top of the high middle-income group. Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, India and Sri Lanka are in the low middle-income group. China and Thailand are roughly in the middle. As we will discuss China in every detail later, let us take Indonesia as an example. According to the Asian Development Bank, Indonesia could be the case of the country in the middle-income trap. It became a middle-income economy in 2003. It actually attained middle-income status in 1993, but fell back after the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis. It took six years to jump back to the middle income level. Now it needs to battle the â€Å"middle-income trap†. Indonesia is not unique to this problem. Regardless the different external international economic environment, many middle-income countries are without a viable high-growth strategy. They are faced with new challenges, including social cohesion, a large pool of young people in search of jobs, as well as millions who still live in misery and poverty. Typically, countries trapped at middle-income level have: (1) low investment ratios; (2) slow manufacturing growth; (3) limited industrial diversification; and (4) poor labor market conditions. The Asian Development Bank in its 2011 report ‘Asia 2050: Realizing the Asian Century’ raised the question that considering that the region has to face up to the daunting  opportunity that lies before it, how many countries will meet this challenge? The answer is still unclear. Given this reality and uncertainties about the future the report postulates two quantitative scenarios with very different outcomes. Most of the discussion in the report is based on the optimistic Asian Century scenario. This scenario assumes that the 11 economies (Armenia; Azerbaijan; Cambodia; P.R.China; Georgia; India; Indonesia; Kazakhstan; Malaysia; Thailand; and Viet Nam) with a demonstrated record of sustained convergence to best global practice over the past 30 years or so continue this trend over the next 40 years and that a number of modest-growth aspiring economies will become convergers by 2020. In this scenario, Asia will take its place among the ranks of the affluent on  par with those in Europe today; some3 billion additional Asians will become affluent by 2050. This is the desired or ideal scenario for Asia as a whole.  The Middle Income Trap scenario assumes that these fast-growing converging economies fall into that trap in the next 5 – 10 years, without any of the slow- or modest-growth aspiring economies improving their record; in other words, Asia follows the pattern of Latin Ameri ca over the past 30 years. This is the pessimistic scenario and could be taken as a wake-up call to Asian leaders. According to this report by the Asian Development Bank, there will be a huge difference in the outcomes of the two scenarios. The economic and social costs of missing the Asian Century are staggering. If today’s fast-growing converging economies become mired in the Middle Income Trap, Asia’s GDP in 2050 would reach only $65 trillion, not $174 trillion (at market exchange rates). GDP per capita would be only $20,600, not $40,800 (PPP). Such an outcome would deprive billions of Asians of a lifetime of affluence and well-being. The possibility of a â€Å"perfect storm† cannot be ruled out in thinking about Asia through 2050. A combination of bad macro policies, finance sector exuberance with lax supervision, conflict, climate change, natural disasters, changing demography, and weak governance could jeopardize Asian growth. In this worst case scenario, Asia could stumble into a  financial meltdown, major conflict, or region wide chaos well before 2050. It is impossible to quantify this scenario, but Asia’s leaders must be aware of the potential for such a catastrophe and avoid it at all costs. By contrast, several East Asian economies have in recent decades provided a template for success to get out of the trap and continue to grow rapidly after attaining middle-income status, and thereby attaining per capita income levels comparable to advanced countries (2013 the International Monetary Fund Working Paper: Growth Slowdowns and the Middle-Income Trap). So far, five Asian countries or regions have successfully escaped the middle-income trap, which are Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore. What do we need to do to follow them? There is no uniform policy solution for avoiding the middle-income trap. South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore have made the transition to advanced ec onomies. As noted by the Economist 2013, even still little is known about why so few countries succeed in making the transition from middle-income to high-income status, however, it’s clear that their paths were different but they shared a willingness and ability to change course. To better understand this question ‘How did these east Asian countries escape the middle income trap’ and find the answer, it will be very useful for us to go back to the World Bank’s landmark report â€Å"The East Asian Miracle†, which was published in 1993. It has analyzed the catch-up growth of the several East Asian Tigers, and some of its conclusions are relevant to the middleincome trap. Its foremost conclusion was that it is vital to ‘get the basics right’: macroeconomic stability, relatively low distortions to domestic competition, openness to external trade, flexible labor markets, and investment in hard infrastructure as well as education. On the other hand, w e could analyze both low-income Asian countries and high-income Asian countries to further evaluate the situation in middle-income Asian economies which include China. For low income Asian countries like Cambodia, Nepal, etc., to get the basics right must still be the top – we may even include the less developed states in China and India. These countries and regions should be in the business of catch-up growth, which comes from maximum mobilization of capital and labor inputs, and large productivity gains from efficient resource reallocation. This is what Prof. Paul Krugman calls growth through ‘perspiration’. At the  other extreme, for high income Asian economies, from Japan down to Singapore, has to rely on ‘output-led,’ productivity- and innovation-based growth. This is what Prof. Paul Krugman calls growth through ‘inspiration’. To get the basics right is still important – note that Japan is hurtling in the opposite direction with wildly profligate fiscal and monetary policies. But this has to be complemented with more sophisticated structural and institutional reforms. These â€Å"second generation† reforms (sophisticated structural and institutional reforms) have to go beyond liberalization of product markets to encompass deregulation of factor markets (for land, labor and capital). They must also include opening up of services sectors, upgrading â€Å"soft infrastructure†, and improving the quality of public administration, regulatory agencies and judicial systems. Among them, being part of â€Å"soft infrastructure†, higher education and skills are of the most important factors. So what about middle income countries â€Å"in between†? They need a mix of getting the basics right and second generation reforms. But the balance should differ as between high middle income and low middle income countries. For example, high middle-income countries need to crack on with structural and institutional reforms for productivity-based growth. This also applies to China (especially its coastal provinces). Moreover, in a recent report of International Monetary Fund, economists suggest four ways to avoid that: 1. Invest in infrastructure. The International Monetary Fund analysis suggests that subpar infrastructure is a key factor that can check an emerging economy’s growth. India, the Philippines and Thailand are particularly exposed in this area and should focus on building new and upgrading existing public transit systems, freight channels, ports and energy infrastructure. 2. Guard against excessive capital inflows. Money flows from abroad can energize an economy and give domestic consumption a boost, but can send an economy south if investors retreat in a hurry. Policy makers should have macro-prudential controls in place to mitigate potential rapid outflows, according to the International Monetary Fund. 3. Boost spending on research and development and post-secondary education. Both are needed to foster the innovation that’s a hallmark of advanced economies. According to the International Monetary Fund data, Malaysia and Thailand have the highest college enrollment rates among emerging Asian countries. However, China is rapidly catching up. China far outstrips other developing Asian countries on R&D, with 2009 spending at more than 1.5% of GDP. 4. Get more women into the workforce and raise the retirement age. Aging population is a problem in a lot of Asian countries. Governments should take actions to reduce â€Å"dependency ratios† by raising the age when workers are eligible for pensions and encouraging girls to enter university and vocational training. Anyway, avoiding the Middle Income Trap entails identifying strategies to introduce new processes and find new markets to maintain export growth. Ramping up domestic demand is also important—an expanding middle class can use its increasing purchasing power to buy highquality, innovative products and help drive growth. The biggest challenge is moving from resource-driven growth that is dependent on cheap labor and capital to growth based on high productivity and innovation. This requires investments in infrastructure and education. As the several East Asian countries has proven, building a high-quality education system which encourages creativity and supports breakthroughs in science and technology is the key. As Asian countries have approached or are approaching the technological frontier, the role of education does matter a lot. Many Asian countries have noted for their commitment to improve the quality of their education, and already have some of the highest educational attainments in the world. Yet the fiscal and institutional challenges to lifting educational performance in the way that is needed to sustain economic growth is another thing altogether. The success or failure in that will be a major determinant of whether Asia fulfils the expectations of its long-term economic growth. Looking at China Many observers believe China’s amazing growth is nearing its limits. A joint report by the World Bank and China’s Development Research Centre has warned that the low-hanging fruit of statedriven industrialization is largely exhausted. According to this joint report, ‘If countries cannot increase  productivity through innovation, they find themselves trapped. China does not have to endure this fate’. This report emphasized that China has reached another turning point in its development path when a second strategic, and no less fundamental, shift is called for. For China, it can no longer rely on imported technology to keep up robust growth of averaging 9.9 percent since the economy was open in 1978. The report said China’s growth of economy will slow to 7 percent later this decade and even 5 percent by the late 2020s even if China does not perform deep reform. However, this report also point out, if everything goes smoothly, China will be a â€Å"high-income† economy by 2030 and perhaps as dominant as Britain in 1870 or the United States in 1945, or indeed as flourishing as the Qing Empire itself in 1820 before the onset of catastrophic decline. As Economists 2013 points out, for all problems of China, in the coming 10-15 years it is still likely to reach several symbolic milestones. The International Monetary Fund predicts that in 2016 it will become the world’s largest economy on a purchasing-power-parity basis. The Economist Intelligence Unit reckons that on the basis of market exchange rates China will attain that glory in 2020. By the end of this decade, according to Daiwa Securities, GDP per person in Shanghai, China’s richest city, could be almost the same as the average for America in 2009. Now, officials and experts discuss endlessly whether China is slowly heading towards a â€Å"middleincome trap†. According to Economists 2011, China was already a lower-middle-income country in 2010, with a GDP per person of around $4,400. The fear is that it might suffer the same stagnation and turbulence as Latin American economies in the 1980s and 1990s. Nevertheless, with trend GDP growth in China slowing to around 8% a year from as high as 11% previously, it’s no wonder economists are asking whether it and other fast-growing Asian economies will fall victim to the middle-income trap. Income inequality The relationship between equity and development was thoroughly illustrated in  the World Bank’s World Development Report 2006: Equity and development. According to this famous report, equity means that individuals should have equal opportunities to pursue a life of their choosing and be spared from extreme deprivation in outcomes. The main message is that equity is complementary, in some fundamental respects, to the pursuit of long-term prosperity. Institutions and policies that promote a level playing field— where all members of society have similar chances to become socially active, politically influential, and economically productive— contribute to sustainable growth and development. Greater equity is thus doubly good for poverty reduction: through potential beneficial effects on aggregate long-run development and through greater opportunities for poorer groups within any society. The complementarities between equity and prosperity arise for two broad sets of reasons. First, there are many market failures in developing countries, notably in the markets for credit, insurance, land, and human capital. As a result, resources may not flow where returns are highest. The inequality of education is taken as an example in this report. Some highly capable children from poor family may fail to complete basic education even primary schooling, while others, who are less able, may finish university. When markets are missing or imperfect, the distributions of wealth and power affect the allocation of investment opportunities. Correcting the market failures is the ideal response; where this is not feasible, or far too costly, some forms of redistribution— of access to services, assets, or political influence—can increase economic efficiency. From the World Bank’s perspective, the second set of reasons why equity and long-term prosperity can be complementary arises from the fact that high levels of economic and political inequality tend to lead to economic institutions and social arrangements that systematically favor the interests of those with more influence. Such inequitable governments can generate economic costs. When personal and property rights are enforced only selectively, when budgetary allocations benefit mainly the politically influential, and when the distribution of public services favors the wealthy, both middle and poorer groups end up with unexploited talent. Society, as a whole, is then likely  to be more inefficient and to miss out on opportunities for innovation and investment, which will accordingly have negative impact on the economic development. At the global level, when developing countries have little or no voice in global governance, the rules can be inappropriate and costly for poorer countries. These adverse effects of unequal opportunities and political power on development are all the more damaging because economic, political, and social inequalities tend to reproduce themselves over time and across generations. Such phenomena was named by the economists of the World Bank as ‘â€Å"inequality traps’, as we mentioned in the very beginning. Disadvantaged children from families at the bottom of the wealth distribution do not have the same opportunities as children from wealthier families to receive quality education, which really does matter for a qualified labor force in the future. So these disadvantaged children can expect to earn less as adults. At the same time, because the poor have less voice in the political process, they—like their parents—will be less able to influence spending decisions to improve public schools for their children. And the cycle of underachievement continues. This report documents the persistence of these inequality traps by highlighting the interaction between different forms of inequality. It presents evidence that the inequality of opportunity that arises is wasteful and inimical to sustainable development and poverty reduction. It also derives policy implications that center on the broad concept of leveling the playing field— both politically and economically and in the domestic and the global arenas. If the opportunities faced by children from the poor families are so much more limited than those faced by children from wealthier families, and if this hurts development progress in the aggregate, then public action has a legitimate role in seeking to broaden the opportunities of those who face the most limited choices. Furthermore, this World Bank report addresses three considerations which are  important at the outset. First, while more even playing fields are likely to lead to lower observed inequalities in educational attainment, health status, and incomes, the policy aim is not equality in outcomes. Indeed, even with genuine equality of opportunities, one would always expect to observe some differences in outcomes owing to differences in preferences, talents, effort, and luck. This is consistent with the important role of income differences in providing incentives to invest in education and physical capital, to work, and to take risks. Of course outcomes matter, but we are concerned with them mainly for their influence on absolute deprivation and their role in shaping opportunities. Second, a concern with equality of opportunity implies that public action should focus on the distributions of assets, economic opportunities, and political voice, rather than directly on inequality in incomes. Policies can contribute to the move from an â€Å"inequality trap† to a virtuous circle of equity and growth by leveling the playing field—through greater investment in the human resources of the poorest; greater and more equal access to public services and information; guarantees on property rights for all; and greater fairness in markets. But policies to level the economic playing field face big challenges. There is unequal capacity to influence the policy agenda: the interests of the disenfranchised may never be voiced or represented. And when policies challenge privileges, powerful groups may seek to block reforms. Thus, equitable policies are more likely to be successful when leveling the economic playing field is accompanied by similar efforts to level the domestic political playing field and introduce greater fairness in global governance. Third, there may be various short-run, policy-level tradeoffs between equity and efficiency. These are well recognized and extensively documented. The point is that the (often implicit) cost-benefit calculus that policymakers use to assess the merits of various policies too often ignores the long-term, hard-to-measure but real benefits of greater equity. Greater equity implies more efficient economic functioning, reduced conflict, greater trust, and better institutions, with dynamic benefits for investment  and growth. To the extent that such benefits are ignored, policymakers may end up choosing too little equity. As emphasized by the World Bank, income inequality is not all. However, as a lot of people believe, the greatest challenge ahead is still income inequality. All attempts will fail if this greatest challenge is not tackled. As state redistributive mechanisms have been weakened in the transition toward a market-oriented economy, China has turned into one of the most unequal countries in the world. Inequality, if not reduced, will be a huge barrier of future growth as it undermines consumption, constrains development in poorer regions, and generates social tensions. Income redistribution policies and social safety nets need to be strengthened to close the inequality gap, through increased budget support and improved government’s transfers to poorer provinces and households. In China, the gap between the rich and the poor and between cities and countryside has continued to widen. Since 2003, absolute poverty has dropped remarkably. But at the same time, the number of people in relative poverty (with 50% or less of the median income) grew from 12.2% of the population to 14.6% between 2002 and 2007, according to research by Terry Sicular of the University of Western Ontario and Li Shi and Luo Chuliang of Beijing Normal University. In addition, in 1981, at least 77 per cent of Chinese were in absolute poverty (that is, with family incomes below $1.25 a day). By 2008 this figure had fallen to 13 per cent. But, the bank notes, a far, far smaller group of people have been able to rise above $2 a day, and hundreds of millions appear stuck in this awkward space between the end of starvation and the beginning of actual comfort and hope. Wang Xiaolu, the economist of national economic institution of China reform foundation, thoroughly elaborated the inequality and economic development in China in his 2006 report. Wang mentioned in his report that before China’s economic reforms, the income gap between urban residents was quite small due to the unified wage policy. On the other hand, in rural areas, the income  gap within one region was relatively small. But there was a very large urban rural income gap, as well as significant differences between different regions. To demonstrate the income gap, let us take a look at China’s Gini coefficient. This index is a measurement of the income distribution of a country’s residents. The number, which ranges between 0 and 1 and is based on residents’ net income, helps define the gap between the rich and the poor, with 0 representing perfect equality and 1 representing perfect inequality. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, in 1980 when wa s the very early stage of the economic reforms, China’s Gini coefficient stood at 0.320, which is quite low and indicates a more equal distribution of wealth. After the rural reforms in the early 1980s, farmers’ income significantly increased which led to the reduction of the urban-rural income gap. The Gini coefficient once dropped to 0.257 in 1984, which meant China had been into the more equal income countries ranks of the world. However, in the subsequent period of China economic reforms, the income gap between urban and rural areas, different regions, and different social strata is rapidly expanding regardless the acceleration of economic growth, the rapidly increasing of per capita income. Until 2001, the Gini coefficient reached 0.447, ranking 88 in the world’s 120 countries and regions in the order from low to high. Most of the countries behind China are those in Latin America and Africa with intense social conflicts, of which a considerable part is in a long-term economic stagnation (data from the World Bank, 2004; World Institute for Development Economics, 2004). In recent yearly the situation might be worse. This index has been retreating gradually since hitting a peak of 0.491 in 2008, slight ly dropping to 0.49 in 2009, 0.481 in 2010 and 0.477 in 2011, according to the National Bureau of Statistics. Most recently, the Gini index reflecting the gap between rich and poor reached 0.474 in China in 2012, which is still higher than the warning level of 0.4 set by the United Nations. According to the data from the National Bureau of Statistics, in terms of the urban rural income gap in China, the urban per capita disposable income is 2.5 times of the rural per capita net income in 1980, 1.9 times in 1985 and 3.2 times in 2004. With the data mentioned above, if we use the average urban per capita income of each province to measure regional income gaps, we could find out that the figure of eastern regions is 1.3 times of that of western regions in 1980 and 1.5 times in 2004. The statistics are incomplete in terms of the income gap among different social strata, but the huge inequality is an indisputable fact. If we look at urban per capita income in 1985, the highest 10% of households in the income is 2.9 times of the lowest 10% of households in; while in 2004 the highest is 8.7 times of the lowest. If we look at rural per capita income in 1980, the highest 10% is about 7 times of the lowest 10% (rough estimate number), up to approximately 11 times in 2004 (rough estimate number). We should also take into account that household income and expenditure survey for the highest and the lowest income residents are more likely to be missed, as well as high income underreporting of cases. As a result, the actual income gap will be larger than the income gap based on surveys. More than likely the increasingly widen of income disparities between different classes has become the primary factor of income inequality. Growing gap in income distribution is seriously ch allenging the social justice, which easily leads to social instability and economic stagnation. In addition, we must pay great attention to the rich caused by corruption and other non- normal channels and the poor caused by unfair distribution of wealth (such as landless farmers and laid-off workers are not properly compensated, etc. ), which are the important reasons of the widening income gap and induction of social conflict. As we mentioned above, a lot of researchers and economists further noted that the distribution of income reversely has a very important impact to economic growth and severe income inequality will hinder economic growth (e.g. Galor and Zeira 1993and Bourguignon 2003). In a situation of economic stagnation, poverty and income inequality become more difficult to resolve, which turns to be an important reason of pushing many economies into Middle-Income Trap. In several studies of the World Bank in recent years, the economist point out that economic growth plays a decisive influence in reducing poverty, but its effect varies in different. Meanwhile, economic growth shows no significant role in reducing income gaps. In contrast, if the income gap is too large, it will indeed lead to frequent social conflict and accordingly directly affect economic growth. Therefore, for the eradication of poverty and reduction of the huge income gap, the economic growth is a necessary, but only economic growth is not enough (The World Bank reports, 2000, 2003 and 2004). In a research of Wang Xiaolu and Fan Gang in 2005, it was concluded that China’s urban residents’ income gap, rural residents’ income gap as well as the income gap between urban and rural areas have continued to widen with a clear trend, but data of their study does not confirm that the income gap will automatically have the tendency to shrink when per capita GDP reaches a certain level. If the income gap continues to expand, China’s Gini coefficient of income will soon break 0.5 (some articles have concluded that in fact it has exceeded 0.5), and China will become one of the world’s most unequal countries in terms of income. Generally, equality and efficiency may be alternative of each other. The increase of equality in the distribution of income will lead to a decline in economic efficiency, which in some cases exists. However, if several factors discussed below are adjusted, the economic efficiency will not be lost, and the wealth equality will c ontinue to be improved. First, social security is an important measure of reducing the income gap, as it can provide protection and assistance to residents to reduce their financial burden or increase their income when they are in the face of illness, unemployment, retirement and low income, etc. But this approach is constrained by the level of economic development. As Wang and Fan point out in their report, social security and transfer payments beyond the affordability will result in heavy social burden and negatively affect economic development, investment and employment initiative. At present, China’s pension insurance, basic pension insurance, unemployment insurance and minimum living security system are still running in a very low level, and only conditionally implemented in urban areas and a few rural areas. Fully implementing these social securities in all rural areas will go beyond the current financial affordability. Even in cities and towns, the current  social security system does not play an active role in reducing the income gap. On the contrary, it has the effect of widening the income gap between urban residents. This is mainly because this social security system is still with a considerable degree of coverage limitations, particularly in the low income people and the mobile labor force. More importantly, the population without coverage is precisely the low income population which is most in need of social protection by these insurance systems. On the other hand, high income residents benefit from these social security systems significantly higher than low income residents. According to a survey of the National Economic Research Institute, the Medicare reimbursement for medical expenses in low income urban residents is much lower than that in high income urban residents. Moreover, the proportion of Medicare reimbursement for the former is lower than the latter, while the proportion of self-paid medical expense in the expenditure for the former is significantly higher than the latter. Therefore, how to ensure the current social security systems to cover urban workers not in the social security system yet as soon as possible will be a critical issue to be addressed. At the same time, social security issues of rural residents need certainly also be placed on the agenda as soon as possible. Long-term difference in treatment between urban and rural residents is not fair. However, this issue needs a longer period of time to gradually resolve due to limited financial resources. A few wealthy rural regions have already established a unified social security system conditions. For residents of most rural areas, although the conditions of establishment of a comprehensive social security system are not mutual, some pressing issues still need to be prioritized to solve, such as the problem of farmers have no money to see a doctor. The new rural cooperative medical care system needs to be quickly spread. Experiences of some rural areas have demonstrated that cooperative medical care system is very effective to protect the low income population. On the other hand, according to international experience, financial transfer payment is also one of the main approaches to eliminate the income gap and regional disparity. As Wang Xiaolu points out in his report in 2006, in this regard in China, in addition to financial support for agriculture, pension  and social welfare and supporting underdeveloped regions expenditures, tax return from central government to local government as well as the construction investment of key projects in the less developed regions, in fact, have been performed financial transfer payment function. The total amount of financial transfer payment is quite large. However, some studies have found that financial transfer payment did not play a significant role in reducing income disparities and regional development gaps. In Wang’s opinion, this is mainly caused by the following reasons, First, the transfer payments are lacking of a rigorous and standardized system as well as standards of implementation. Hence the transfer payments’ strongly subjective profile makes their role in reducing income disparities and regional development gaps greatly reduced. Second, the transfer payments do not have clear objectives and their structures are not reasonable. The proportion of the transfer payments for general investment projects and government expenditures is too high while that for alleviating poverty and decreasing the bottle neck of development of backward areas (such as insufficient education and other public expenditure, weak infrastructure, etc. All of those are impediments to economic development) underfunded. It makes the transfer payments difficult to play a critical role in reducing the income gap. Third, there are no strict and effective measures to oversee the usage as well as the effect of transfer payments. For example, in some poor areas, the government poverty alleviation and disaster relief funds were frequently misappropriated to cover office buildings, luxury cars and government staff bonuses. Due to lack of management and supervision, some of the earmarks turned into waste, and provided the chances for some rent-seeking and  corrupt government officials. Therefore, for transfer payments, the main problems now seem not to be the quantity, but rather setting up clear objectives and rationalization of the system to regulate the management and to strengthen supervision. These measures will reduce the income gap. At the same time, they will not reduce economic efficiency, but improve efficiency, reduce corruption and promote development. In addition to social security system and financial transfer payments, education and infrastructure also play the similarly important role in the relationship of equality and economic efficiency. According to Wang’s research, many domestic and foreign literatures have pointed out that education plays a crucial role in the promotion of economic development; moreover, education to the whole population helps to reduce the income gap. In 2004 the National Economic Research Institute conducted a survey on the income of mobile labor force. Across the country, 3,000 randomly selected migrant workers and self-employed persons from rural areas were classified according to the average monthly income. The results are as following: for those not graduated from primary school the average monthly income is 769 yuan, for primary school graduated 815 yuan, for junior high school graduated 960 yuan, for high school graduated 1268 yuan, for college and above 1554 yuan. This very clearly illustrates the level of education greatly impacts on income levels. Obviously, improving education is a fundamental way to improve the employability and income levels of low income population. On one hand, currently there are hundreds of millions of rural labor force migrates into cities and towns to work. On the other hand, there are three hundred million people who are still engaged in agriculture, with wages of a small fraction of the average urban per capita. They are waiting to continue to transfer to cities. But most of them are facing low level of education, lack of vocational skills and oversupply in the labor market. Meanwhile, a lot of city workers returned to the status of poverty due to layoffs and unemployment. It’s very difficult for them to get reemployment because of the lack of professional skills. However, the labor market needs workers with a higher level of education and professional skills but has to facing  the reality of supply shortage. Therefore, in order to narrowing the income gap, it is very critical to enhance the popularity of primary and secondary education and expanding vocational education. In Wang’s research, he found out that China’s per capita level of education exhibits unexpected negative impact on urban residents income gap. Surprisingly, higher level of education led to a widening income gap. This is a strong signal that China’s education -age population is facing unequal educational opportunities, and educational opportunities for high income groups are significantly greater than the low income population. As a result, the per capita level of education increases, while the income gap has not narrowed. Instead, the income inequality is expanding. If we look at the popularization of compulsory nine years education in China, you will find in recent years, pupils’ dropout rate in rural areas was significantly higher than that in urban areas, with many dropout of school due to poverty situation in rural areas. This point can also be reflected from the allocation of education funds. Especially a few key universities get large amount of fund s, while a great number of rural primary and secondary education underfunded. Compared the situation in 2003 with that in 1999, the state financial allocations to universities increased by 40.4 billion yuan (in another word, increase 85%), while state financial allocations to ordinary primary and junior high schools increased by 52.5 billion yuan (increase 79%) and 49.8 billion yuan (increase of 65%), respectively. Although the situation has improved to various degrees, but this increase did not exceed the revenue and expenditure growth rate (90% and 87%). Even so, in 2003 the national average education budget per 420,000 primary schools is only less than 30 million, of which the budget allocation in rural schools is far less than that of urban schools. Some individual prestigious university obtained an education funding up to ten billion. Excessively unbalanced distribution of educational resources not only will exacerbate income inequality, but also is not helpful for efficient allocation of education resources. Another educational problem to be solved is how to correctly handle the relationship of general education and vocational education. Although in China currently there’re more than 4million people each year go into  colleges for education, but there are also more than 17 million people directly get employment without higher education. For the labor market, each year the number of demand for workers with the level of secondary education as well as specialized skills far exceeds in number of the demand for college graduates. However, the current dominant position of general secondary education is still basically to provide students into college In another word, the main objective of general secondary schools is the examination-oriented education and does not pay attention to skills training. The dominant ideology of the entire education system is to measure the success of education by entering the university or not. Four out of five school-age youth entered the labor market as the losers of their education. This reality has incalculable negative impact on workers’ skills, work ethic and healthy psychology, according to Wang’s report. At the same time, secondary vocational and other professional education live in a subordinate position in the education system, with very limited quantity. Compared the situation in 2003 with that in 1999, the state financial allocations to secondary vocational schools increased by 300 million yuan (an increase of 2.5%), and state financial allocations to technical schools decreased by 400 million yuan (down 16% )and vocational schools increased by 3 billion (an increase of 42% increase ). These increases are negligible compared to the funding’s growth of universities and ordinary primary and secondary. Such education dislocation makes the most of new entrants to the labor market is lacking of professional skills, and their low level knowledge on employment helps rather limited. In addition, local education and vocational education system’s exclusion for migrant workers and their children is also need to be carefully addressed. Like South Korea, China needs to focus on creating a highly qualified workforce so that they can increase innovation. South Korea adopted a policy to intensify investments in education and innovation in preparation for this. This policy aided South Korea in developing a plan for long term growth as opposed to short term consumption driven growth. Meanwhile, the World Bank has just released its detailed report: China 2030: Building a Modern, Harmonious, and Creative High-Income Society. In this report the World Bank believes that the export-led model that has delivered the past  30-years of growth and development in China has now run its course. From the World Bank’s perspective, China can only succeed in becoming a modern, high income country if it implements a six-step series of reforms. Not surprisingly, to increase innovation and to reduce inequality are among these six reforms as following, ï‚ · Accelerate the pace of innovation and create an open innovation system in which competitive pressures encourage Chinese firms to engage in product and process innovation not only through their own research and development but also by participating in global research and development networks. Essentially, the World Bank recommends that China seek to move away from being an imitator to an innovator in its own right. Reducing inequality by expanding opportunities and promoting social security for all by facilitating equal access to jobs, finance, quality social services, and portable social security. With regard to infrastructure construction in recent years, transportation, communication and other conditions as well as the urban landscape have significantly improved. But we should note the imbalance in the allocation of resources. In many areas, much more emphasis and attentions were put on the facade construction, highway construction and urban centers transformation than that on rural infrastructure in remote areas. On the one hand, highways are vacant or rarely used in some less developed regions. On the other hand, there are 173 towns and more than 50,000 administrative villages still inaccessible by road, the latter accounting for 8% of the total number of administrative villages across the whole country, according to Wang’s research. For these remote areas, the weak infrastructure is an important cause leading to poverty and backwardness. In summary, China’s development level is still at the low level. Hoping to rely on transfer payments to drastically eliminate the income gap is unrealistic. What the governments should focus on is to provide more equal opportunities and conditions in education, infrastructure and other areas. Investment in these  areas will provide human resources and infrastructure supply better meeting the social and market needs. By doing them, it is entirely possible to improve residents’ economic situation. China is facing the continually widen income gap. If this critical issue could be reasonably resolved, Chinese social justice, harmony and long term economic development will be able to be ensured. . Otherwise, China may turn into a society with huge income gap, serious social conflict, power and money collusion, corruption and plunder prevailed, which will eventually result in economic stagnation. Middle-income trap will be impossible to avoid in this case. As we mentioned above, there are several factors leading to the current expansion of the income gap or blocking reduction of the income gap. These factors include that social security system is not sound, the financial transfer payment system is with flaw, educational opportunities are not fair enough, the education system is not conducive to the promotion of employment, weak infrastructure in rural and backward areas, lack of job opportunities as well as the irrational distribution of resources and corruption and other social in equities due to the not perfect system. To resolve these issues, it’s urgent to perform further reform and development. The following most crucial problems need to be addressed: to solve the fairness of education, to solve the disjointed issues between educations, economic development as well as employment, to create more job opportunities through economic development and urbanization, to correct government’s action, eventually eliminates the problem of corruption and unfair distribution through administrative reform. Resolving these problems not only will not affect economic efficiency, but also will ensure the impartiality of Chinese social harmony, economic efficiency and long-term sustainable development.

An Introduction to Erikson’s Stages of Development

An Introduction to Erikson’s Stages of Development Psychoanalyst Erik Eriksons stages of development articulated a psychosocial theory of human development made up of eight stages that cover the entirety of the human lifespan from birth to old age. Each stage is defined by a central crisis that the individual must grapple with in order to move on to the next stage. Erikson’s theory has been highly influential on scholars’ understanding of human development and identity formation. Key Takeaways: Erikson's Stages of Development Erik Eriksons stages of development consist of eight stages that cover the entire human lifespan. This structure makes the point that development does not end when an individual reaches adulthood; rather, it continues throughout the entire lifespan.Each stage of development revolves around a central crisis that the individual must contend with in order to move on to the next stage.The success at each stage is reliant upon success at previous stages. Individuals must go through the stages in the order laid out by Erikson. Stages of Psychosocial Development The stages of psychosocial development laid out by Erikson are as follows: 1.  Trust vs. Mistrust The first stage takes place in infancy and ends around age 1. Erikson said that infants first social achievement is to let their caretakers out of sight without becoming anxious. In other words, infants must develop a sense of trust in their caretakers and the people around them. When infants come into the world, they are vulnerable and dependent on others for survival. When a child’s caretakers successfully meet their needs- e.g. food, warmth, and safety- the child develops confidence that the world is a safe and secure place. If the child’s needs are not met, however, the child comes to believe the world is an inconsistent, untrustworthy place. This doesn’t mean that all mistrust is bad. According to Erikson, a certain amount of mistrust is necessary. Without some amount of mistrust, the child could become too trusting and consequently would not know when to be skeptical of people’s intentions. However, an individual should emerge from this stage with a greater sense of trust than mistrust. If the infant is successful in this endeavor, they will develop the virtue of hope: a belief that one’s desires are achievable despite the chaos of the world. 2.  Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt The second stage takes place when the child is around 2 or 3 years old. As children grow, they become more capable of doing things on their own. If children are supported in their bids at independence, they will learn to have confidence in their abilities. On the other hand, if children are too controlled or criticized, they will start to doubt their ability to take care of themselves. If the individual emerges from this stage with a greater sense of autonomy than shame or doubt, they will develop the virtue of will: the ability to make choices freely while also having self-control when appropriate. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt The third stage takes place between the ages of 3 and 6. Preschool age children start to take initiative in pursuing their own objectives. When they are successful, they develop a sense of competence in their ability to make and achieve goals. When those objectives meet resistance or become problematic in the social world, they will experience guilt. Too much guilt can lead to a lack of self-confidence. If the child emerges from this stage with more positive than negative experiences taking initiative, they will develop the virtue of purpose: the ability to determine what they want and go after it. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority The fourth stage takes place from 6 to 11 years old. This stage marks the child’s first forays into grade school and structured learning. It is therefore the first time the child must begin to understand and contend with the expectations of the wider culture. Children learn what it means to be a good member of society, both in terms of productivity and morality. If children come to believe they cannot function properly in society, they develop feelings of inferiority. Children who experience success at this stage will develop the virtue of competence. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion The fifth stage takes place during adolescence and in some cases can extend into the 20s. With the onset of puberty, physical and cognitive changes cause adolescents to think about their futures for the first time. On the one hand, they are trying to determine who they are and what they want for their futures. On the other hand, they worry about making unwise commitments and are concerned about the way others, especially their peers, perceive them. While identity development is a lifelong process, the fifth stage a key time for identity, as adolescents start to choose and pursue the roles they wish to fulfill as adults. They also must begin to develop a worldview that gives them a sense of personal perspective. Success at this stage will result in a coherent sense of identity that leads to the virtue of fidelity: loyalty to one’s commitments. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation The sixth stage takes place during young adulthood. Adolescents are often too preoccupied to truly be intimate with another person. However, during young adulthood, individuals who have established a sense of their own identity can achieve a genuine connection with someone else. At this stage, those whose relationships remain impersonal will experience isolation. People who achieve more intimacy than isolation at this stage will develop the virtue of mature love. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation The seventh stage takes place during midlife. It is at this time that people turn their attention to what they can offer the next generation. Erikson called this â€Å"generativity.† While his focus was on raising children, adults who produce anything that contributes to the future, including creative works and ideas, are also being generative. Adults who are not successful at this stage become stagnant, self-absorbed, and bored. Generative adults who contribute to the next generation and avoid becoming overly self-indulgent develop the virtue of care. 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair The eighth and final stage takes place during old age. At this point, people start to look back on their lives. If they can accept and find meaning in what they have done and accomplished throughout their lives, they will achieve integrity. If people look back and don’t like what they see, the realization that life is too short to try out alternatives and repair regrets will lead to despair. Finding meaning in one’s life in old age results in the virtue of wisdom. The Structure of the Stages Erikson was influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, particularly Freuds stage theory of psychosexual development. Erikson expanded on the five stages outlined by Freud by assigning psychosocial tasks to each stage, then adding three additional stages for later periods of adulthood. Erikson’s stages rest on the epigenetic principle: the idea that each stage is dependent upon the previous stage and, therefore, individuals must go through the stages in a specific order. At each stage, the individual must wrestle with a central psychosocial conflict in order to progress to the next stage. Each stage has a particular conflict because, according to Erikson, individual growth and sociocultural context work together to bring that conflict to the individuals attention at a particular point in life. As individuals move through the psychosocial stages specified by Erikson, their success rests upon the outcomes of previous stages. For example, when infants develop more mistrust than trust in their caretakers during the first stage, they may experience role confusion during the fifth stage. Similarly, if an adolescent emerges from the fifth stage without having successfully developed a strong sense of identity, he or she may have difficulty developing intimacy during the sixth stage. As a result of these structural elements, Erikson’s theory communicates two key points: Development does not stop when one reaches adulthood. Rather, individuals continue to develop throughout their entire lifespan.Each stage of development hinges upon the individual’s interaction with the social world. Critiques Eriksons stage theory has faced some criticism for its limitations. Erikson was vague about the experiences an individual must undergo in order to successfully grapple with the conflict of each stage. He also wasn’t specific about how people move through the various stages. Erikson himself was aware that his work was unclear; he explained that he intended his theory to provide context and descriptive detail for development, not precise facts about developmental mechanisms. Nevertheless, Erikson’s theory can be credited with inspiring a great deal of research into human development, identity, and personality. Sources Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.Dunkel, Curtis S., and Jon A. Sefcek. â€Å"Eriksonian Lifespan Theory and Life History Theory: An Integration Using the Example of Identity Formation.†Ã‚  Review of General Psychology, vol. 13, no. 1, 2009, pp. 13-23,  http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013687Erikson, Erik H. Childhood and Society. W.W. Norton Company, 1963.Erikson, Erik H. Identity: Youth and Crisis. W.W. Norton Company, 1968.McAdams, Dan. The Person: An Introduction to the Science of Personality Psychology. 5th ed., Wiley, 2008.McLeod, Saul. â€Å"Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development.† Simply Psychology, 2013. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

Literary Analysis Paper †The Tradegy in Love

Literary Analysis Paper – The Tradegy in Love Free Online Research Papers Literary Analysis Paper The Tradegy in Love Thesis Statement: Love is not just the mere exchange of sweet words. It often has flaws like deception, hypocrisy and love-turned-to-hatred which also become the elements that make love a tragedy. Love is often exemplified by candlelit dinners, bouquets of roses, heart-shaped chocolates and kisses. We often get the impression that these are the only things that comprise the state of being in love. But with the images of roses and chocolates, the reality of love is compromised. There is a much bigger world than the mere exchange of passionate looks and sweet words. There is the harsh reality that even in love, there is tragedy. In â€Å"The Chaser† by John Collier, the main character, Alan Austen, searched desperately for a painless solution to his dilemma. But Alan’s love for Diana is shallow. Alan’s decision to go to the potion-maker is like forcing Diana to love him. Love, in its truest sense, must be something borne out of deep, mutual feelings between two people. It is something shared. However, this is not the case in this story. Alan’s desperate attempt is not noble in any sense; what he is doing is merely luring Diana into his trap. Only, Diana is unaware that she is being pushed into this relationship. â€Å"She is already [everything to me]. Only she doesn’t care about it† (par. 28). Alan is deceiving not only Diana but himself as well. He is making himself believe that she will actually fall for him. But in reality, the only thing Diana will be falling for is his trap. You want love to come naturally. There is nothing like the feeling of being in love an d being loved in return. Alan wants to be loved by Diana in return very, very badly so he thinks that the love potion is the answer to his prayers. Alan is simply chasing after his dream of being with Diana and there is nothing wrong with that. But the manner of his pursuit is questionable. Certainly, there is nothing wrong about hoping for what is desired. However, in this case, hope was provided for by a potion, a supernatural substance supposedly capable of making one fall madly in love. Magic realism comes into play through this potion. A magical element unobtrusively inserted into everyday living is magic realism. In stories like Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream and the famous television series, Bewitched, wherein magic was used to craft relationships, the love that took place was clearly superficial. This method of making people fall in love is tragic because it does not give the other party the freedom to choose. The effects of the potions the old man creates are said to be permanent. â€Å"The effects are permanent, and extend far beyond the mere casual impulse. But they include it. Oh, yes they include it. Bountifully, insistently. Everlastingly† (par. 19). The insistent effects of the potion is explained in the 23rd paragraph. â€Å"‘For indifference,’ said the old man, ‘they substitute devotion. For scorn, adoration†¦ -and however gay and giddy she is, she will change altogether. She will want nothing but solitude and you.’† Diana will want to know everything that about Alan. She will want to be involved in everything he does. She will very carefully look after Alan. â€Å"If you are an hour late. She will be terrified. She will think that you are killed† (par. 33). This explains part of the insistent effects of the potion. The other part is elucidated by its everlasting effects, which will therefore result to the need of the glove-clean er. The effects of the love potion were laid out for him by the old man and yet he heeded none of it. All that Alan needed to do was to comprehend the old man’s warnings. But the effects, Diana’s extreme curiosity, her over protectiveness, her paranoia, her actual makeover, overwhelmed Alan which made him turn a deaf ear to the advice. Anyone in the right state of mind would not go as far as Alan just to be loved in return. Alan is too one-dimensional to realize that. His referral to the potion as wonderful shows how narrow his mind is as depicted in the 38th paragraph. â€Å"‘And how much,’ said Alan, ‘is this wonderful mixture?’† How could anyone be this shallow and still think that this is such a â€Å"wonderful mixture?† But Alan was obviously just holding on to the string of hope he had, ignorant of the implications. This way of loving is tragic because it is not real. It could even be said that he does not really love Dian a and that he only is in love with himself because of a lack of sincerity. Artificial is what it is. Artificial love is indeed a tragedy. In Guy de Maupassant’s â€Å"The Jewels†, the theme of love is slightly different. The main protagonist, M. Lantin gave the impression that he was in a happy marriage. He probably was. His state drastically changes only after his wife has gone. â€Å"He contracted several debts and chased after money in the manner of men reduced in the world† (par. 18). He finds out about the source of the jewels and finds it difficult to accept the sad truth. He then realizes that not only were the jewels’ identity suspicious, but even his wife’s true identity becomes questionable. M. Lantin comes across the idea of deception very gradually. This, though inexplicit, was first exhibited when he found out about the jewels’ identity while going around town â€Å"without a clear idea in his head† (par. 40). He could not explain how his wife was able to get a hold of such precious objects so he assumes that it is a gift. â€Å"A gift from whom? Why?† (par. 40). This act of inward questioning shows that he is slowly in the process of accepting the truth of his wife’s adultery. His next affirmation of his wife’s infidelity was when he returned to the jeweler after he finally decided to sell the jewels. He was immediately attended to when he entered but he caught the assistants looking sideways at him â€Å"and laughter in their eyes and on their lips† (par. 49). Their laughter was not that of amusement but of early knowledge of his wife’s charade. His apprehension, probably brought by the situation, caused the assistants to seem to forget their manners. â€Å"One of the assistants went out to laugh at his ease; another blew his nose with vigor† (par. 55). He, on the other hand, could have also been a carrier of deception. He was the envy of most men when he married her. â€Å"Her simple beauty had the charm of an angelic modesty, and the faint smile which never left her lips seemed a reflection of her heart† (par. 2) blinded M. Lantin. He carried her around like a trophy. True love? Probably not. When his wife died, naturally, he mourned, he wept, and he grieved. But it is possible that he mourned not for the wife but for the comfort of his life with her. He lamented for his old lifestyle, which had died the moment his wife took her last breath. M. Lantin greatly depended on his wife. This is shown in the 17th paragraph when it mentioned how difficult life was for him. â€Å"His salary, which in his wife’s hands was sufficient for all the household needs, was now inadequate for him alone† (par. 17). Had he been genuinely in love with her, he would have paid more attention to her and how she handled things around t he house. Possibly, too, he was more in love with the idea of perfection and having everything, than being in love with his wife. The hypocrisy of his love is what makes him a carrier of deception. The story of â€Å"The Jewels† could also be viewed as a tragedy within a tragedy. What M. Lantin thought unreal was actually real and what he saw as real was in reality, a fake. The tragedy of this epiphany within the tragedy of him being in love with perfection makes one think twice about love. The concepts of deception revealed merely suggest another tragedy. True, M. Lantin loved his wife. Maybe not deep enough for them to stay together or for him to hang on even after her death, but it was love. He accepted her for whom she was and how she especially with the â€Å"imitation† jewels. But again, there are tragedies in love. In this one, it was the deception of both parties involved. In Nick Joaquin’s â€Å"May Day Eve†, Agueda and Badoy’s bitter marriage all began on a May night. Agueda and Badoy are two, completely diverse people. Agueda is a girl ahead of her time. She is bold and liberated unlike most girls her age. She stands out from the broad spectrum of conformists of her era. â€Å"‘But what nonsense!’ cried Agueda. ‘This is the year 1847. There are no devils any more!’ Nevertheless, she had turned pale. ‘But where could I go, huh? Yes, I know! Down to the sala. It has that big mirror and no one is there now’† (par. 23). Badoy, who at first comes off as a stereotypical, forceful man intent on proving his machismo, is more of a promiscuous fellow who is used to getting his way. This is shown in how he initially treats Agueda. â€Å"‘Let me pass!’ she cried again in a voice of fury, but he grasped her by her wrist. ‘No,’ he smiled. ‘Not until we have danced’† (par. 59-60). Agueda resisted his advances and he swore to get her back for it. â€Å"Oh, he would have his revenge he would make her pay, that little harlot! She should suffer for this, he thought greedily, licking his bleeding knuckles†(par. 79). But despite his detestations, he was surreptitiously in love with her. â€Å"But–Judas!–what eyes she had! And what a pretty color she turned when angry!†¦ and suddenly realized that he had fallen madly in love with her. He ached intensely to see her again–at once!–to touch her hand and her hair;†¦ It was May, it was summer, and he was young- young!- and deliriously in love†(par. 79-80). The tragedy is not that. The tragedy is when Badoy’s heart forgets how much he felt for Agueda. The tragedy is how both were not careful enough to mend their drifting marriage. â€Å"But alas, the heart forgets; the heart is distracted, and May-time passes; summer ends; the storms break over the hot-ripe orchards and the heart grows old; while the hours, the days, the months and the years pile up and pile uptill the mind becomes too crowded, too confused: dust gathers in it; cobwebs multiply; the walls darken and fall into ruin and decay; the memory perishes†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (par. 81). Agueda described the devil she saw to her daughter using characteristics her own husband, Badoy had. â€Å"Well, let me see†¦ He had curly hair and a scar on his cheek† (par. 43). As with Badoy, he illustrated his witch to his grandson with features that were of his wife’s. This just goes to show how each of them saw their marriage. Both Badoy and Agueda perceived their marriage to be a taste of hell. Instead of admitting that they saw their spouses in the mirror, they claimed that it was the witch/devil they saw for that was probably how each of them was to each other during their life together. Perhaps this was because the premise of their love was based only on raging passion- and nothing more. Passion, after all, is evanescent and transitory. Love cannot be based on passion alone. Their contrasting attributes perhaps were what brought them together. But it could also have been the root of the bitterness that concluded their time together. Badoy harked back to the time â€Å"of the girl who had flamed so vividly in a mirror one wild May Day midnight, long, long ago† (par. 108) and refreshed his memory of â€Å"how she had bitten his hand an fled† (par. 109) which â€Å"surprised his heart in the instant of falling in love† with Agueda (par. 109). But it has been a while and time has healed the wounds of their relationship. The old love that was blinded by hatred which brought pain has now resurfaced. The tragedy is that it is too late. It is good that Badoy can live in the sweet past he and Agueda had but it is sad that Agueda never found out how much she really meant to Badoy all this time. She died not knowing that what she and Badoy had was real. The love did not go away. It was just covered up in the dust of time. Fairy tales assure us that tragedy does not exist and love conquers all odds. A scullery maid marries a prince, a beautiful maiden tames the heart of a beast, and in the end, everyone lives happily ever after. Love, however, comes in different forms. These stories, The Chaser, The Jewels and May Day Eve, show a different perspective from the simplistic storybook love that we are exposed to as children. Through these stories, our outlook on love is deepened. Love is not just the mere exchange of passionate looks and sweet words, it often has flaws like deception, hypocrisy and transformations to hatred which also become elements that make love a tragedy. Collier, John. â€Å"The Chaser.† Enjoying Fiction: A Textbook and Anthology. Ed. Jonathan Chua. Ateneo de Manila University: Office of Research and Publication, 2005. 16-18. De Maupassant, Guy. â€Å"The Jewels.† Enjoying Fiction: A Textbook and Anthology. Ed. Jonathan Chua. Ateneo de Manila University: Office of Research and Publication, 2005. 32-37. Joaquin, Nick. â€Å"May Day Eve.† Enjoying Fiction: A Textbook and Anthology. Ed. Jonathan Chua. Ateneo de Manila University: Office of Research and Publication, 2005. 99-107. Index Pages: The Tragedy in Love I. Introduction II. The Chaser A. Artificial Love B. Discussion of the tragedy 1. Alan’s shallow affection for Diana 2. the potion as a tool for love 3. the warnings of the old man C. Mini Conclusion III. The Jewels A. Deception B. Discussion of the tragedy 1. concepts of deception a. jewels’ true identity b. M. Lantin’s epiphany c. M. Lantin as an agent of deception C. Mini Conclusion IV. May Day Eve A. Love turned to hatred B. Discussion of the tragedy 1. their love for each other 2. love blinded by hatred 3. bitterness of regret C. Mini Conclusion V. Conclusion A. Artificial Love B. Deception C. Love turned to hatred Research Papers on Literary Analysis Paper - The Tradegy in LoveHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoWhere Wild and West MeetMind TravelPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Project Managment Office SystemIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in Capital19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided Era

Hire a Copywriter and Learn How to Be a Good Manager for Your Future

Hire a Copywriter and Learn How to Be a Good Manager for Your Future Hire a Copywriter and Learn How to Be a Good Manager for Your Future College is full of experiences and opportunities to learn, but the lessons and knowledge gained from first hand experience applies most readily to real life situations you will encounter in the future. When you enter the workforce you may find that your degree will get your foot in the door, but once you are there, your experiences from real life, and the on the job training you receive will be your true teachers. In you professional career, degrees won’t matter as much as results will and showing your employers your degree will mean very little when compared to showing them your performance. Experience Counts One way students can gain real life experience with a wide range of applications, is by managing employees or managing projects. Most college students quickly learn that college is full of projects, but few see those projects and papers as opportunity to gain management skills. But this is precisely what they are, and those students who take on the task with a mindset to learn management will gain the most from these experiences. Many college students understandably view projects and papers as a means to learn more about the subject matter they are studying in or majoring in. But if the student can see these as an opportunity to learn management skills, they will optimize their learning. A team project in college may take people management skills, leadership skills, as a team needs a leader to run well, presentation skills, if the team must present, writing skills for material handed in or presented, technical skills and more. These skills are above and beyond the subject matter being learned by he student. Skills Gained from Paper Writing If a student has an important paper due, this can be viewed as a project during which a great deal of management experience can be gained. You may improve time management and organizational skills as well. Skills Gained by Managing a Freelancer for Your Project One skill you may not have thought of is the management experience you can gain by hiring a freelancer to assist with your paper. Managing a freelancer requires communication skills, as you must convey your vision of the paper to them, insure they understand the vision, and communicate expectations for deadline, writing style, subject and other details. Hiring a freelancer is similar to having a remote, temporary employee. Since they are working for you, you must direct their activities as it relates to your paper or project. You must manage time to ensure deadlines for the paper are being met, so it will be finished by the due date. You must review content and give feedback when necessary. One of the greatest management skills one can obtain is the ability to motivate their employees and give feedback in such a way that they get the performance they need. If you have positive feedback for an employee you should give that to them, and if possible, give the praise publicly. This is extremely motivating and will help you as a manager to continue getting the performance you need. If you have negative feedback, or perhaps have something that needs to be changed, you of course need to give that feedback. The way you give the feedback is very important: it must be done tactfully, clarifying expectations, and if necessary, taking responsibility for unclear communication with the employee. Clearly, you are attending university to be educated on the subject matter of your chosen major, but don’t miss out on all of the periphery experience to be attained there. At our company you can hire an academic expert for writing a custom paper of any complexity, in more than 50 disciplines.

Principles of International Business Management Essay

Principles of International Business Management - Essay Example Having established itself on a firm footing within the domestic markets, the company started looking for avenues of growth in foreign markets. To undertake such an initiative, the company studied took stock of its internal as well external factors which drive its urge for entering a foreign market. Internal factors are of course the strengths of the company while external factors were compiled after doing an environment analysis. In addition the company also undertook an analysis of PESTLE factors for the particular markets, where the company was supposed to go. All such factors were not looked into 'in isolation', because one particular factor might have a spillover effect on couple of other factors and vice-versa. All such permutations and combinations were taken into account while preparing for an expansion strategy. Reckitt Benckiser has over the year successfully implemented the strategy of building strong brands across all its key categories like surface care, fabric care, dishwashing, home care, health and personal care and food. If Lysol is a leading brand in disinfectant cleaning, Calgon holds the number one market position in fabric care in Europe. Similarly placed are the major categories like Vanish (fabric care), Veet (cosmetic depilatories), Mortein (pest control) and Airwick (air fragrance). The company highlighted the brand equity to its fullest potential, while negotiating with foreign collaborators for investing in a new market. This strategy paid off rich dividends for the company with its top 15 brands consistently accounting for a majority of the company's revenues, from 40% of total revenues in 2001 to about 56% in 2005. Such a brand creation in different categories allows Reckitt to; Differentiate its products and earn a price premium and Provides a competitive advantage to the company in the market place. In addition the company also resorted to ambush marketing depending upon the scenario of competition in some of the foreign markets. For example, in one such recent case (23 Nov 2006), the company also won a legal battle against its rival in India, Hindustan Liver Ltd. (HLL), when the courts upheld the contention of Reckitt Benckiser concerning the advertisement of Dettol soap. For marketing the products the company has been dependent on Supermarkets and hypermarkets which form the most important distribution channel, e.g. accounting for 65.2% of the UK market's value and 69.5% of the European market's value. The company used innovation as its core competitive strategy which helped the company in creating product differentiation and providing it the competitive edge. Motivational factors for undertaking foreign investments are mainly; To tap the vast consumer market outside Europe and UK. Markets in India, China and other Asian countries are developing very fast and these markets have immense potential for a company dealing with consumer items. The company had established itself quite well in the home market and wanted to move on in newer markets. Company wanted to take the competitors head on, not only in domestic market but in overseas market as well. To